¿EFICIENCIA O EQUIDAD?
Gravar la educación privada atentaría contra ambos objetivos
Por Lic. Gabriel Leandro, M.B.A.
Economista
Un buen sistema tributario busca tanto la eficiencia como la equidad. Si un sistema tributario logra la misma recaudación que otro, pero a un menor costo, el primero es más eficiente que el segundo. Por otro lado, el sistema tributario es equitativo si distribuye la carga tributaria en forma equitativa en entre los distintos miembros de la población. El problema es que generalmente al avanzar en el logro de uno de los dos objetivos se retrocede en el logro del otro. Este tipo de disyuntivas se presentan con frecuencia a la hora de tomar decisiones de política económica. El asunto consiste en valorar cuál objetivo es prioritario para la sociedad.
El sistema tributario costarricense ha sido caracterizado como poco equitativo. Distintos estudios han mostrado que la carga tributaria recae en forma similar sobre los sectores de bajos, medios y altos ingresos (o sea es de carácter neutral). Esto se debe a que en gran medida está basado en impuestos indirectos, los cuales generan cerca del 70% de la recaudación fiscal. En cuanto a la eficiencia, se considera que en Costa Rica el sistema tributario es muy complejo en su estructura y administración, pues cuenta con muchos impuestos, diversos regímenes de incentivos e impuestos con graves problemas de diseño. En general ninguno de los dos objetivos mencionados anteriormente se alcanza a plenitud.
Dentro de los planes que se manejan en la Asamblea Legislativa actualmente está el gravar la educación privada con el impuesto al valor agregado, pero antes de tomar una decisión de esta naturaleza sería conveniente preguntarse qué tanto se alcanzan los objetivos que el sistema tributario se plantea.
El impuesto al valor agregado es un impuesto de carácter regresivo. Este tipo de impuestos no contribuye a mejorar la distribución de la carga tributaria entre la población. Para eso se requieren impuestos directos. Más aun cabe preguntarse, ¿quiénes son los usuarios de la educación privada? Si bien es cierto que la mayoría de las familias de altos ingresos enviarán a sus hijos al sistema educativo privado, también lo es que muchas familias de clase media actúan de la misma manera, pertenecen a la clase trabajadora, donde tanto el padre como la madre laboran y por tanto necesitan los servicios que los kinders, escuelas y colegios privados les proveen. Gran cantidad de los estudiantes de las universidades privadas tienen que trabajar para financiar sus estudios, y muchos lo logran con sacrificio. Entonces, al aplicar el impuesto al valor agregado, ¿quiénes se afectan más, las personas de ingresos medios o de ingresos altos? En conclusión, no se contribuye a lograr una mayor equidad.
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Pero tampoco se logra la eficiencia. Aquellas personas que no puedan seguir pagando la educación privada podrán recurrir a la educación pública, en cuyo caso no pagan el impuesto y más bien pasan a ser subsidiados por el Estado, o bien algunos desertarán del sistema educativo, no pagando el impuesto. Esto llevaría a una baja recaudación fiscal, un incremento del gasto público, un deterioro de las condiciones de las familias, estudiantes y de las mismas instituciones educativas privadas y públicas. En general una pérdida de bienestar irrecuperable para la sociedad. Esto sin hablar de los enormes beneficios sociales que la educación provee a la sociedad a corto y largo plazo.
En materia de política económica, como se dijo, normalmente no es posible alcanzar todos los objetivos simultáneamente, pero vale la pena sacrificar algunos con tal de lograr otros. ¿Qué sentido tendría sacrificar unos objetivos para tampoco lograr los otros?
miércoles, 21 de marzo de 2012
martes, 20 de septiembre de 2011
Thanksgiving day
Most Americans are familiar with the Pilgrim's Thanksgiving Feast of 1621, but few realize that it was not the first festival of its kind in North America. Long before Europeans set foot in the Americas, native peoples sought to insure a good harvest with dances and rituals such as the Green Corn Dance of the Cherokees.
The first Thanksgiving service known to be held by Europeans in North America occurred on May 27, 1578 in Newfoundland, although earlier Church-type services were probably held by Spaniards in La Florida. However, for British New England, some historians believe that the Popham Colony in Maine conducted a Thanksgiving service in 1607 (see Sources: Greif, 208-209; Gould, and Hatch). In the same year, Jamestown colonists gave thanks for their safe arrival, and another service was held in 1610 when a supply ship arrived after a harsh winter. Berkley Hundred settlers held a Thanksgiving service in accordance with their charter which stated that the day of their arrival in Virginia should be observed yearly as a day of Thanksgiving, but within a few years an Indian uprising ended further services (Dabney). Thus British colonists held several Thanksgiving services in America before the Pilgrim's celebration in 1621.
The Pilgrims, with a puritanical rejection of public religious display, held a non-religious Thanksgiving feast, aside from saying grace. In fact, they seem to have used the three days for feasting, playing games, and even drinking liquor.
In 1623, the Pilgrims at Plymouth Plantation, Massachusetts, held another day of Thanksgiving. As a drought was destroying their crops, colonists prayed and fasted for relief; the rains came a few days later. And not long after, Captain Miles Standish arrived with staples and news that a Dutch supply ship was on its way. Because of all this good fortune, colonists held a day of Thanksgiving and prayer on June 30. This 1623 festival appears to have been the origin of our Thanksgiving Day because it combined a religious and social celebration.
Festivals of Thanksgiving were observed sporadically on a local level for more than 150 years. They tended to be autumn harvest celebrations. But in 1789, Elias Boudinot, Massachusetts, member of the House of Representatives, moved that a day of Thanksgiving be held to thank God for giving the American people the opportunity to create a Constitution to preserve their hard won freedoms. A Congressional Joint Committee approved the motion, and informed President George Washington. On October 3, 1789, the President proclaimed that the people of the United States observe "a day of public thanksgiving and prayer" on Thursday, the 26th of November.
The next three Presidents proclaimed, at most, two days of thanksgiving sometime during their terms of office, either on their own initiative or at the request of a joint Resolution of Congress. One exception was Thomas Jefferson, who believed it was a conflict of church and state to require the American people hold a day of prayer and thanksgiving. President James Madison proclaimed a day of Thanksgiving to be held on April 13, 1815, the last such proclamation issued by a President until Abraham Lincoln did so in 1862.
Most of the credit for the establishment of an annual Thanksgiving holiday may be given to Sarah Josepha Hale. Editor of Ladies Magazine and Godey's Lady's Book, she began to agitate for such a day in 1827 by printing articles in the magazines. She also published stories and recipes, and wrote scores of letters to governors, senators, and presidents. After 36 years of crusading, she won her battle. On October 3, 1863, buoyed by the Union victory at Gettysburg, President Lincoln proclaimed that November 26, would be a national Thanksgiving Day, to be observed every year on the fourth Thursday of November.
Only twice has a president changed the day of observation. President Franklin D. Roosevelt, in order to give depression-era merchants more selling days before Christmas, assigned the third Thursday to be Thanksgiving Day in 1939 and 1940. But he was met with popular resistance, largely because the change required rescheduling Thanksgiving Day events such as football games and parades. In 1941, a Congressional Joint Resolution officially set the fourth Thursday of November as a national holiday for Thanksgiving.
Today, Thanksgiving is a time when many families come together, and many churches are open for special services. We have both Native Americans and immigrants to thank for the opportunity to observe a day of thanksgiving.
By the President of the United States of America--
A Proclamation
Whereas it is the duty of all Nations to acknowledge the providence of Almighty God, to obey his will, to be grateful for his benefits, and humbly to implore his protection and favor--and Whereas both Houses of Congress have by their Joint Committee requested me "to recommend to the People of the United States a day of public thanksgiving and prayer to be observed by acknowledging with grateful hearts the many signal favors of Almighty God, especially by affording them an opportunity peaceably to establish a form of government for their safety and happiness."
Now therefore I do recommend and assign Thursday the 26th day of November next to be devoted by the People of these States to the service of that great and glorious Being, who is the beneficent Author of all the good that was, that is, or that will be--That we may then all unite in rendering unto him our sincere and humble thanks--for his kind care and protection of the People of this country previous to their becoming a Nation--for the signal and manifold mercies, and the favorable interpositions of his providence, which we experienced in the course and conclusion of the late war--for the great degree of tranquility, union, and plenty, which we have since enjoyed--for the peaceable and rational manner in which we have been enabled to establish constitutions of government for our safety and happiness, and particularly the national One now lately instituted, for the civil and religious liberty with which we are blessed, and the means we have of acquiring and diffusing useful knowledge; and in general for all the great and various favors which he hath been pleased to confer upon us.
And also that we may then unite in most humbly offering our prayers and supplications to the great Lord and Ruler of Nations and beseech him to pardon our national and other transgressions--to enable us all, whether in public or private stations, to perform our several and relative duties properly and punctually--to render our national government a blessing to all the People, by constantly being a government of wise, just, and constitutional laws, discreetly and faithfully executed and obeyed--to protect and guide all Sovereigns and Nations (especially such as have shown kindness unto us) and to bless them with good government, peace, and concord--To promote the knowledge and practice of true religion and virtue, and the increase of science among them and Us--and generally to grant unto all mankind such a degree of temporal prosperity as he alone knows to be best.
Given under my hand at the City of New York the third day of October in the year of our Lord 1789.
Go. Washington
In the fall of 1621, the Pilgrims, early settlers of Plymouth Colony, held a three-day feast to celebrate a bountiful harvest, an event many regard as the nation's first Thanksgiving. Historians have also recorded ceremonies of thanks among other groups of European settlers in North America, including British colonists in Virginia in 1619. The legacy of thanks and the feast have survived the centuries, as the event became a national holiday in 1863 when President Abraham Lincoln proclaimed the last Thursday of November as a national day of thanksgiving. Later, President Franklin Roosevelt clarified that Thanksgiving should always be celebrated on the fourth Thursday of the month to encourage earlier holiday shopping, never on the occasional fifth Thursday.
242 million
The number of turkeys expected to be raised in the United States in 2010. That's down 2 percent from the number raised during 2009. The turkeys produced in 2009 together weighed 7.1 billion pounds and were valued at $3.6 billion. Source: USDA National Agricultural Statistics Service
Weighing in With a Menu of Culinary Delights
47 million
The preliminary estimate of turkeys Minnesota expected to raise in 2010. The Gopher State was tops in turkey production, followed by North Carolina (31.0 million), Arkansas (28.0 million), Missouri (17.5 million), Indiana (16.0 million) and Virginia (15.5 million). These six states together would probably account for about two-thirds of U.S. turkeys produced in 2010.
735 million pounds
The forecast for U.S. cranberry production in 2010. Wisconsin is expected to lead all states in the production of cranberries, with 435 million pounds, followed by Massachusetts (195 million). New Jersey, Oregon and Washington are also expected to have substantial production, ranging from 14 million to 53 million pounds.
1.9 billion pounds
The total weight of sweet potatoes — another popular Thanksgiving side dish — produced by major sweet potato producing states in 2009. North Carolina (940 million pounds) produced more sweet potatoes than any other state. It was followed by California (592 million pounds) and Louisiana (162 million pounds).
931 million pounds
Total production of pumpkins produced in the major pumpkin-producing states in 2009. Illinois led the country by producing 429 million pounds of the vined orange gourd. Pumpkin patches in California and Ohio also provided lots of pumpkins: Each state produced at least 100 million pounds. The value of all pumpkins produced by major pumpkin-producing states was $103 million.
If you prefer cherry pie, you will be pleased to learn that the nation's forecasted tart cherry production for 2010 totals 195 million pounds, albeit 46 percent below 2009's forecasted total. Of this 2010 total, the overwhelming majority (140 million) will be produced in Michigan.
2.2 billion bushels
The total volume of wheat — the essential ingredient of bread, rolls and pie crust — produced in the United States in 2010. North Dakota and Kansas accounted for 33 percent of the nation's wheat production.
736,680 tons
The 2010 contracted production of snap (green) beans in major snap (green) bean-producing states. Of this total, Wisconsin led all states (326,900 tons). Many Americans consider green bean casserole a traditional Thanksgiving dish.
Source: The previous data came from the USDA National Agricultural Statistics Service
$7.3 million
The value of U.S. imports of live turkeys from January through July of 2010 — 99.1 percent from Canada. When it comes to sweet potatoes, the Dominican Republic was the source of 62.1 percent ($3.4 million) of total imports ($5.5 million). The United States ran a $3.9 million trade deficit in live turkeys during the period but had a surplus of $31.5 million in sweet potatoes.
Source: Foreign Trade Statistics
13.8 pounds
The quantity of turkey consumed by the typical American in 2007, with no doubt a hearty helping devoured at Thanksgiving time. Per capita sweet potato consumption was 5.2 pounds.
Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture as cited in the Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2010, Tables 212-213
The Turkey Industry
$3.6 billion
The value of turkeys shipped in 2002. Arkansas led the way in turkey shipments, with $581.5 million, followed by Virginia ($544.2 million) and North Carolina ($453 million). In 2002, poultry businesses with a primary product of turkey totaled 35 establishments, employing about 17,000 people.
Source: Poultry Processing: 2002
$4.1 billion
Forecast 2010 receipts to farmers from turkey sales. This exceeds the total receipts from sales of products such as barley, oats, sorghum (combined) and peanuts.
Source: USDA Economic Research Service
The Price is Right
$1.33
Retail cost per pound of a frozen whole turkey in December 2008.
Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics as cited in the Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2010, Table 717
Where to Feast
3
Number of places in the United States named after the holiday's traditional main course. Turkey, Texas, was the most populous in 2009, with 445 residents, followed by Turkey Creek, La. (362) and Turkey, N.C. (272). There are also nine townships around the country named Turkey, three in Kansas.
Source: Population estimates
5
Number of places and townships in the United States that are named Cranberry or some spelling variation of the red, acidic berry (e.g., Cranbury, N.J.), a popular side dish at Thanksgiving. Cranberry township (Butler County), Pa., was the most populous of these places in 2009, with 27,560 residents. Cranberry township (Venango County), Pa., was next (6,774).
Source: Population estimates
28
Number of places in the United States named Plymouth, as in Plymouth Rock, the landing site of the first Pilgrims. Plymouth, Minn., is the most populous, with 72,849 residents in 2009; Plymouth, Mass., had 56,842. There is just one township in the United States named “Pilgrim.” Located in Dade County, Mo., its population was 126 in 2009. And then there is Mayflower, Ark., whose population was 2,257 in 2009.
Source: Population estimates
117 million
Number of households across the nation — all potential gathering places for people to celebrate the holiday.
Source: Families and Living Arrangements: 2009
The first Thanksgiving service known to be held by Europeans in North America occurred on May 27, 1578 in Newfoundland, although earlier Church-type services were probably held by Spaniards in La Florida. However, for British New England, some historians believe that the Popham Colony in Maine conducted a Thanksgiving service in 1607 (see Sources: Greif, 208-209; Gould, and Hatch). In the same year, Jamestown colonists gave thanks for their safe arrival, and another service was held in 1610 when a supply ship arrived after a harsh winter. Berkley Hundred settlers held a Thanksgiving service in accordance with their charter which stated that the day of their arrival in Virginia should be observed yearly as a day of Thanksgiving, but within a few years an Indian uprising ended further services (Dabney). Thus British colonists held several Thanksgiving services in America before the Pilgrim's celebration in 1621.
The Pilgrims, with a puritanical rejection of public religious display, held a non-religious Thanksgiving feast, aside from saying grace. In fact, they seem to have used the three days for feasting, playing games, and even drinking liquor.
In 1623, the Pilgrims at Plymouth Plantation, Massachusetts, held another day of Thanksgiving. As a drought was destroying their crops, colonists prayed and fasted for relief; the rains came a few days later. And not long after, Captain Miles Standish arrived with staples and news that a Dutch supply ship was on its way. Because of all this good fortune, colonists held a day of Thanksgiving and prayer on June 30. This 1623 festival appears to have been the origin of our Thanksgiving Day because it combined a religious and social celebration.
Festivals of Thanksgiving were observed sporadically on a local level for more than 150 years. They tended to be autumn harvest celebrations. But in 1789, Elias Boudinot, Massachusetts, member of the House of Representatives, moved that a day of Thanksgiving be held to thank God for giving the American people the opportunity to create a Constitution to preserve their hard won freedoms. A Congressional Joint Committee approved the motion, and informed President George Washington. On October 3, 1789, the President proclaimed that the people of the United States observe "a day of public thanksgiving and prayer" on Thursday, the 26th of November.
The next three Presidents proclaimed, at most, two days of thanksgiving sometime during their terms of office, either on their own initiative or at the request of a joint Resolution of Congress. One exception was Thomas Jefferson, who believed it was a conflict of church and state to require the American people hold a day of prayer and thanksgiving. President James Madison proclaimed a day of Thanksgiving to be held on April 13, 1815, the last such proclamation issued by a President until Abraham Lincoln did so in 1862.
Most of the credit for the establishment of an annual Thanksgiving holiday may be given to Sarah Josepha Hale. Editor of Ladies Magazine and Godey's Lady's Book, she began to agitate for such a day in 1827 by printing articles in the magazines. She also published stories and recipes, and wrote scores of letters to governors, senators, and presidents. After 36 years of crusading, she won her battle. On October 3, 1863, buoyed by the Union victory at Gettysburg, President Lincoln proclaimed that November 26, would be a national Thanksgiving Day, to be observed every year on the fourth Thursday of November.
Only twice has a president changed the day of observation. President Franklin D. Roosevelt, in order to give depression-era merchants more selling days before Christmas, assigned the third Thursday to be Thanksgiving Day in 1939 and 1940. But he was met with popular resistance, largely because the change required rescheduling Thanksgiving Day events such as football games and parades. In 1941, a Congressional Joint Resolution officially set the fourth Thursday of November as a national holiday for Thanksgiving.
Today, Thanksgiving is a time when many families come together, and many churches are open for special services. We have both Native Americans and immigrants to thank for the opportunity to observe a day of thanksgiving.
By the President of the United States of America--
A Proclamation
Whereas it is the duty of all Nations to acknowledge the providence of Almighty God, to obey his will, to be grateful for his benefits, and humbly to implore his protection and favor--and Whereas both Houses of Congress have by their Joint Committee requested me "to recommend to the People of the United States a day of public thanksgiving and prayer to be observed by acknowledging with grateful hearts the many signal favors of Almighty God, especially by affording them an opportunity peaceably to establish a form of government for their safety and happiness."
Now therefore I do recommend and assign Thursday the 26th day of November next to be devoted by the People of these States to the service of that great and glorious Being, who is the beneficent Author of all the good that was, that is, or that will be--That we may then all unite in rendering unto him our sincere and humble thanks--for his kind care and protection of the People of this country previous to their becoming a Nation--for the signal and manifold mercies, and the favorable interpositions of his providence, which we experienced in the course and conclusion of the late war--for the great degree of tranquility, union, and plenty, which we have since enjoyed--for the peaceable and rational manner in which we have been enabled to establish constitutions of government for our safety and happiness, and particularly the national One now lately instituted, for the civil and religious liberty with which we are blessed, and the means we have of acquiring and diffusing useful knowledge; and in general for all the great and various favors which he hath been pleased to confer upon us.
And also that we may then unite in most humbly offering our prayers and supplications to the great Lord and Ruler of Nations and beseech him to pardon our national and other transgressions--to enable us all, whether in public or private stations, to perform our several and relative duties properly and punctually--to render our national government a blessing to all the People, by constantly being a government of wise, just, and constitutional laws, discreetly and faithfully executed and obeyed--to protect and guide all Sovereigns and Nations (especially such as have shown kindness unto us) and to bless them with good government, peace, and concord--To promote the knowledge and practice of true religion and virtue, and the increase of science among them and Us--and generally to grant unto all mankind such a degree of temporal prosperity as he alone knows to be best.
Given under my hand at the City of New York the third day of October in the year of our Lord 1789.
Go. Washington
In the fall of 1621, the Pilgrims, early settlers of Plymouth Colony, held a three-day feast to celebrate a bountiful harvest, an event many regard as the nation's first Thanksgiving. Historians have also recorded ceremonies of thanks among other groups of European settlers in North America, including British colonists in Virginia in 1619. The legacy of thanks and the feast have survived the centuries, as the event became a national holiday in 1863 when President Abraham Lincoln proclaimed the last Thursday of November as a national day of thanksgiving. Later, President Franklin Roosevelt clarified that Thanksgiving should always be celebrated on the fourth Thursday of the month to encourage earlier holiday shopping, never on the occasional fifth Thursday.
242 million
The number of turkeys expected to be raised in the United States in 2010. That's down 2 percent from the number raised during 2009. The turkeys produced in 2009 together weighed 7.1 billion pounds and were valued at $3.6 billion. Source: USDA National Agricultural Statistics Service
Weighing in With a Menu of Culinary Delights
47 million
The preliminary estimate of turkeys Minnesota expected to raise in 2010. The Gopher State was tops in turkey production, followed by North Carolina (31.0 million), Arkansas (28.0 million), Missouri (17.5 million), Indiana (16.0 million) and Virginia (15.5 million). These six states together would probably account for about two-thirds of U.S. turkeys produced in 2010.
735 million pounds
The forecast for U.S. cranberry production in 2010. Wisconsin is expected to lead all states in the production of cranberries, with 435 million pounds, followed by Massachusetts (195 million). New Jersey, Oregon and Washington are also expected to have substantial production, ranging from 14 million to 53 million pounds.
1.9 billion pounds
The total weight of sweet potatoes — another popular Thanksgiving side dish — produced by major sweet potato producing states in 2009. North Carolina (940 million pounds) produced more sweet potatoes than any other state. It was followed by California (592 million pounds) and Louisiana (162 million pounds).
931 million pounds
Total production of pumpkins produced in the major pumpkin-producing states in 2009. Illinois led the country by producing 429 million pounds of the vined orange gourd. Pumpkin patches in California and Ohio also provided lots of pumpkins: Each state produced at least 100 million pounds. The value of all pumpkins produced by major pumpkin-producing states was $103 million.
If you prefer cherry pie, you will be pleased to learn that the nation's forecasted tart cherry production for 2010 totals 195 million pounds, albeit 46 percent below 2009's forecasted total. Of this 2010 total, the overwhelming majority (140 million) will be produced in Michigan.
2.2 billion bushels
The total volume of wheat — the essential ingredient of bread, rolls and pie crust — produced in the United States in 2010. North Dakota and Kansas accounted for 33 percent of the nation's wheat production.
736,680 tons
The 2010 contracted production of snap (green) beans in major snap (green) bean-producing states. Of this total, Wisconsin led all states (326,900 tons). Many Americans consider green bean casserole a traditional Thanksgiving dish.
Source: The previous data came from the USDA National Agricultural Statistics Service
$7.3 million
The value of U.S. imports of live turkeys from January through July of 2010 — 99.1 percent from Canada. When it comes to sweet potatoes, the Dominican Republic was the source of 62.1 percent ($3.4 million) of total imports ($5.5 million). The United States ran a $3.9 million trade deficit in live turkeys during the period but had a surplus of $31.5 million in sweet potatoes.
Source: Foreign Trade Statistics
13.8 pounds
The quantity of turkey consumed by the typical American in 2007, with no doubt a hearty helping devoured at Thanksgiving time. Per capita sweet potato consumption was 5.2 pounds.
Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture as cited in the Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2010, Tables 212-213
The Turkey Industry
$3.6 billion
The value of turkeys shipped in 2002. Arkansas led the way in turkey shipments, with $581.5 million, followed by Virginia ($544.2 million) and North Carolina ($453 million). In 2002, poultry businesses with a primary product of turkey totaled 35 establishments, employing about 17,000 people.
Source: Poultry Processing: 2002
$4.1 billion
Forecast 2010 receipts to farmers from turkey sales. This exceeds the total receipts from sales of products such as barley, oats, sorghum (combined) and peanuts.
Source: USDA Economic Research Service
The Price is Right
$1.33
Retail cost per pound of a frozen whole turkey in December 2008.
Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics as cited in the Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2010, Table 717
Where to Feast
3
Number of places in the United States named after the holiday's traditional main course. Turkey, Texas, was the most populous in 2009, with 445 residents, followed by Turkey Creek, La. (362) and Turkey, N.C. (272). There are also nine townships around the country named Turkey, three in Kansas.
Source: Population estimates
5
Number of places and townships in the United States that are named Cranberry or some spelling variation of the red, acidic berry (e.g., Cranbury, N.J.), a popular side dish at Thanksgiving. Cranberry township (Butler County), Pa., was the most populous of these places in 2009, with 27,560 residents. Cranberry township (Venango County), Pa., was next (6,774).
Source: Population estimates
28
Number of places in the United States named Plymouth, as in Plymouth Rock, the landing site of the first Pilgrims. Plymouth, Minn., is the most populous, with 72,849 residents in 2009; Plymouth, Mass., had 56,842. There is just one township in the United States named “Pilgrim.” Located in Dade County, Mo., its population was 126 in 2009. And then there is Mayflower, Ark., whose population was 2,257 in 2009.
Source: Population estimates
117 million
Number of households across the nation — all potential gathering places for people to celebrate the holiday.
Source: Families and Living Arrangements: 2009
miércoles, 16 de marzo de 2011
Regimen y caida del muro
Como se sentiria estar alli
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ULCr5DrL5GU
Por que se comportaban asi
http://www.rtve.es/alacarta/videos/television/dia-que-cayo-muro-berlin/586264/
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KXK8R0tjxGY&feature=related
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ULCr5DrL5GU
Por que se comportaban asi
http://www.rtve.es/alacarta/videos/television/dia-que-cayo-muro-berlin/586264/
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KXK8R0tjxGY&feature=related
La guerra fria y el muro de berlin
(1)Ve y resume lo siguiente.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AzaceEJQWn4&feature=related
(2) ve el siguiente y di como te sentirias
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nch5MbnvTqY&feature=related
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AzaceEJQWn4&feature=related
(2) ve el siguiente y di como te sentirias
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nch5MbnvTqY&feature=related
lunes, 15 de noviembre de 2010
jueves, 21 de octubre de 2010
Sentido Comun
ANÁLISIS A FONDO: EL SENTIDO COMÚN
FRANCISCO GÓMEZ MAZA
· El más común de los sentidos
· Estamos lejos del sentido común
De lo que adolecemos, entre otras adolescencias, los mexicanos es de sentido común. Éste nunca se equivoca y lo hacemos a un lado por pretender convencer a los demás de que nosotros tenemos la verdad absoluta, cuando cada uno tiene su verdad y tiene que haber respeto mutuo de la verdad del otro. El más “sin sentido común” es que la clase política pretenda vender que el país necesita de la democracia representativa, de las elecciones con urnas embarazadas, de los acarreos, de la corrupción de los votantes, del presidencialismo, de la reelección de diputados y presidentes municipales, de la guerra contra el narcotráfico en vez de la adopción de una política preventiva y realmente educativa; de que hace falta un tranvía en el Centro Histórico, de que… bueno, de todo, como las seudo religiones, que a toda costa pretenden convencer a los demás de que su dios es el único y verdadero y que su libro sagrado es el único que contiene la verdad revelada por la divinidad.
En esas estamos, cuando el gobierno trata de imponer a los ciudadanos, con cinismo, con perversidad, empleando todos los medios posibles, gastando millones de pesos del erario, que enriquecemos los contribuyentes, de que está haciendo todo por acabar con la pobreza, por acabar y destruir a las bandas del crimen organizado, por acabar con el sida, por convencer de que estamos saliendo de la crisis y de la recesión, cuando es sabido que la recesión y la crisis son características sistémicas de nuestra economía, porque por lo menos más del 50 por ciento de la población vive en extrema pobreza y sólo el 10 por ciento de la riqueza nacional está distribuida entre el 90 por ciento de la población y el otro 90 por ciento está concentrado en el 10 por ciento integrado por los poderosos. Un gobierno así, para empezar, es un mal menor, pero está llegando a convertirse en un mal intolerable, como bien lo dijo hace ya casi 300 años Thomas Paine, el más insigne promotor del liberalismo y la democracia.
Paine (Thetford, 29 de enero de 1737 - Nueva York, 8 de julio de 1809, en Wikipedia) fue un político y publicista estadounidense de origen inglés, cuya doctrina del "Common Sense" (sentido común) marca un hito en la historia universal, al enseñar que las decisiones políticas no deben fundamentarse en doctrinas basadas en la historia, la religión, la nación, el honor o en nociones apriorísticas, sino en criterios avalados por la experiencia de los seres humanos y en la razón. Y nosotros hacemos todo lo contrario. Nos rasgamos las vestiduras porque la Asamblea Legislativa del Distrito Federal despenaliza el aborto; nos escandalizamos porque se legaliza el matrimonio entre personas del mismo sexo y se les da el derecho de adoptar hijos. Nos escandalizamos porque alguien sugiere parar la llamada guerra contra el narcotráfico, porque es una guerra, de antemano, fallida, y porque proponemos la legalización del consumo de drogas y atacar a las bandas por donde más les duele: sus estados financieros, sus cuentas bancarias, sus finanzas. Cómo. Qué estupidez. No atacar con armas al crimen organizado es condenar a nuestros hijos a la tentación de las adicciones. Pamplinas. El sentido común dice que sólo con prevención, con educación, con leyes no expropiatorias de los “súbditos” es como vamos a salir adelante. El “boom” de la producción, cosecha, beneficio, trasiego, comercialización de cualquier tipo de droga, natural o sintética, se acabaría si le abatimos los precios de consumo y les alzamos desmesuradamente los precios productor. Y lo mismo puede decirse de todas las decisiones de interés público. La política, otro ejemplo. Si empleáramos el sentido común, tendríamos gobiernos de periodos cortos, verdaderos representantes de la sociedad, auténticos empleados de las comunidades, igualito que el modelo zapatista que se practica en las Juntas de Buen Gobierno. Verdaderos, auténticos, representantes de la comunidad.
El Common Sense, de Paine, allanó el camino a la Declaración de Independencia Estadounidense, ratificada el 4 de julio del mismo año. El Sentido Común fue un ensayo escrito por Thomas Paine, que se publicó por primera vez el 10 de enero de 1776, durante la Revolución estadounidense. El ensayo ejerció una gran influencia sobre la opinión pública durante la guerra de Independencia, presentando a los colonos un argumento a favor de la independencia frente al dominio británico, en un momento en que la cuestión de la independencia provocaba todavía suspicacias y gran parte de los colonos se sentían indecisos ante dicha cuestión. Paine redactó el panfleto en un estilo corriente para que la gente pudiera entenderlo sin dificultad, renunciando así a la Filosofía y al Latín, referencias utilizadas por los escritores de la era de la Ilustración. Paine estructuró la obra como si se tratara de un sermón, incluyendo bastantes referencias a la Biblia como si fueran formulas y para influir de esa manera en el modo de actuar de la gente. El historiador Gordon S. Wood describió a El Sentido Común como "el panfleto más incendiario y popular que se publicó durante la etapa revolucionaria."
El ensayo de Paine afirmaba que las colonias estadounidenses no obtenían ninguna compensación de su metrópolis, cuyo único propósito era explotar sus riquezas, y que cualquier análisis sensato concluiría con la necesidad de obtener la independencia del dominio británico y establecer un gobierno republicano propio. Esta obra, publicada anónimamente, constituyó un éxito editorial sin precedentes en América, logrando vender más de 120,000 ejemplares en los tres meses siguientes a su aparición, cuando los mayores tirajes de la época eran de 100 o 200 ejemplares. Pero el Paine del 1700 es tan actual en las condiciones en que vivimos los ciudadanos del mundo. Expropiados, excluidos, tratados como súbditos por nuestros gobiernos y expoliados por las leyes, que dictan los representantes de los poderes institucionales y fácticos, en beneficio de los poderosos, y para aplicarse únicamente sobre los juicios y actitudes de las mayorías desposeídas. Una justicia a modo. Cuánta falta de sentido común. Que si decidiéramos en base al sentido común, otro gallo nos cantaría.
FRANCISCO GÓMEZ MAZA
· El más común de los sentidos
· Estamos lejos del sentido común
De lo que adolecemos, entre otras adolescencias, los mexicanos es de sentido común. Éste nunca se equivoca y lo hacemos a un lado por pretender convencer a los demás de que nosotros tenemos la verdad absoluta, cuando cada uno tiene su verdad y tiene que haber respeto mutuo de la verdad del otro. El más “sin sentido común” es que la clase política pretenda vender que el país necesita de la democracia representativa, de las elecciones con urnas embarazadas, de los acarreos, de la corrupción de los votantes, del presidencialismo, de la reelección de diputados y presidentes municipales, de la guerra contra el narcotráfico en vez de la adopción de una política preventiva y realmente educativa; de que hace falta un tranvía en el Centro Histórico, de que… bueno, de todo, como las seudo religiones, que a toda costa pretenden convencer a los demás de que su dios es el único y verdadero y que su libro sagrado es el único que contiene la verdad revelada por la divinidad.
En esas estamos, cuando el gobierno trata de imponer a los ciudadanos, con cinismo, con perversidad, empleando todos los medios posibles, gastando millones de pesos del erario, que enriquecemos los contribuyentes, de que está haciendo todo por acabar con la pobreza, por acabar y destruir a las bandas del crimen organizado, por acabar con el sida, por convencer de que estamos saliendo de la crisis y de la recesión, cuando es sabido que la recesión y la crisis son características sistémicas de nuestra economía, porque por lo menos más del 50 por ciento de la población vive en extrema pobreza y sólo el 10 por ciento de la riqueza nacional está distribuida entre el 90 por ciento de la población y el otro 90 por ciento está concentrado en el 10 por ciento integrado por los poderosos. Un gobierno así, para empezar, es un mal menor, pero está llegando a convertirse en un mal intolerable, como bien lo dijo hace ya casi 300 años Thomas Paine, el más insigne promotor del liberalismo y la democracia.
Paine (Thetford, 29 de enero de 1737 - Nueva York, 8 de julio de 1809, en Wikipedia) fue un político y publicista estadounidense de origen inglés, cuya doctrina del "Common Sense" (sentido común) marca un hito en la historia universal, al enseñar que las decisiones políticas no deben fundamentarse en doctrinas basadas en la historia, la religión, la nación, el honor o en nociones apriorísticas, sino en criterios avalados por la experiencia de los seres humanos y en la razón. Y nosotros hacemos todo lo contrario. Nos rasgamos las vestiduras porque la Asamblea Legislativa del Distrito Federal despenaliza el aborto; nos escandalizamos porque se legaliza el matrimonio entre personas del mismo sexo y se les da el derecho de adoptar hijos. Nos escandalizamos porque alguien sugiere parar la llamada guerra contra el narcotráfico, porque es una guerra, de antemano, fallida, y porque proponemos la legalización del consumo de drogas y atacar a las bandas por donde más les duele: sus estados financieros, sus cuentas bancarias, sus finanzas. Cómo. Qué estupidez. No atacar con armas al crimen organizado es condenar a nuestros hijos a la tentación de las adicciones. Pamplinas. El sentido común dice que sólo con prevención, con educación, con leyes no expropiatorias de los “súbditos” es como vamos a salir adelante. El “boom” de la producción, cosecha, beneficio, trasiego, comercialización de cualquier tipo de droga, natural o sintética, se acabaría si le abatimos los precios de consumo y les alzamos desmesuradamente los precios productor. Y lo mismo puede decirse de todas las decisiones de interés público. La política, otro ejemplo. Si empleáramos el sentido común, tendríamos gobiernos de periodos cortos, verdaderos representantes de la sociedad, auténticos empleados de las comunidades, igualito que el modelo zapatista que se practica en las Juntas de Buen Gobierno. Verdaderos, auténticos, representantes de la comunidad.
El Common Sense, de Paine, allanó el camino a la Declaración de Independencia Estadounidense, ratificada el 4 de julio del mismo año. El Sentido Común fue un ensayo escrito por Thomas Paine, que se publicó por primera vez el 10 de enero de 1776, durante la Revolución estadounidense. El ensayo ejerció una gran influencia sobre la opinión pública durante la guerra de Independencia, presentando a los colonos un argumento a favor de la independencia frente al dominio británico, en un momento en que la cuestión de la independencia provocaba todavía suspicacias y gran parte de los colonos se sentían indecisos ante dicha cuestión. Paine redactó el panfleto en un estilo corriente para que la gente pudiera entenderlo sin dificultad, renunciando así a la Filosofía y al Latín, referencias utilizadas por los escritores de la era de la Ilustración. Paine estructuró la obra como si se tratara de un sermón, incluyendo bastantes referencias a la Biblia como si fueran formulas y para influir de esa manera en el modo de actuar de la gente. El historiador Gordon S. Wood describió a El Sentido Común como "el panfleto más incendiario y popular que se publicó durante la etapa revolucionaria."
El ensayo de Paine afirmaba que las colonias estadounidenses no obtenían ninguna compensación de su metrópolis, cuyo único propósito era explotar sus riquezas, y que cualquier análisis sensato concluiría con la necesidad de obtener la independencia del dominio británico y establecer un gobierno republicano propio. Esta obra, publicada anónimamente, constituyó un éxito editorial sin precedentes en América, logrando vender más de 120,000 ejemplares en los tres meses siguientes a su aparición, cuando los mayores tirajes de la época eran de 100 o 200 ejemplares. Pero el Paine del 1700 es tan actual en las condiciones en que vivimos los ciudadanos del mundo. Expropiados, excluidos, tratados como súbditos por nuestros gobiernos y expoliados por las leyes, que dictan los representantes de los poderes institucionales y fácticos, en beneficio de los poderosos, y para aplicarse únicamente sobre los juicios y actitudes de las mayorías desposeídas. Una justicia a modo. Cuánta falta de sentido común. Que si decidiéramos en base al sentido común, otro gallo nos cantaría.
lunes, 5 de abril de 2010
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